Education
THE Despatch of 1854 continued to be the basis of educational policy for India even after it was transferred to the Crown, and was confirmed by the Secretary of State in 1859. The importance of primary education was particularly emphasised and the Secretary of State suggested the levy of a special rate on land to provide adequate means for its promotion. The result was a rapid growth in the number of schools and colleges. Some of these were entirely financed by the Government, while others were managed by private bodies, with or without a Government grant-in-aid.
In 1882 a Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir William Hunter to review the progress of education under the new policy, and its report was approved by the Government in 1884. The policy of 1854 was fully endorsed, but emphasis was laid upon the fact that primary education had not made sufficient progress. The report drew attention to the special and urgent need for the extension and improvement of the elementary education of the masses, and recommended that the primary schools should be managed by the newly established Municipal and District Boards under the supervision and control of the Government.
The Committee observed that the system of grants-in-aid had proved very satisfactory and recommended the “progressive devolution of primary, secondary and collegiate education upon private enterprise and continuous withdrawal of Government from competition therewith “. The result was a steady increase in the number of schools and colleges.
Social and Religious Reform
The second half of the nineteenth century was marked by a strong wave of reforming activities in religion and society, the path of which had been paved by Raja Rammohan Roy. There was a general recognition of the existing evils and abuses in society and religion. But, as usual, the reforming zeal followed diverse channels. Some were lured by the Western ideas to follow an extreme radical policy, and this naturally provoked a reaction, which sought to strengthen the forces of orthodoxy. Between these two extremes were moderate reformers, who wanted to proceed forward more cautiously along the line of least resistance.
We are even now too close to the period to appraise correctly the value of the different forces that were at work and of the consequences that flowed from them. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves merely to a review of the chief movements. It would be convenient to study them under two heads. First, the movements resulting in the establishment of a group or order outside the pale of orthodox Hindu society, and secondly general changes in the belief, custom and practices of the Hindus as a whole.
The Brahma Samaj
Under the first head, the Brahma Samaj demands our chief attention as it is the most striking product of a strong reform movement brought about by the impact of new ideas and beliefs that agitated men’s minds early in the nineteenth century.
Reference has already been made to a theistic organisation founded by Raja Rammohan Roy in 1828. It was called Brahma Sabha and meant to be an assembly of all who believed in the unity of God and discarded the worship of images. A house was built and handed over to a body of Trustees. The Trust Deed which the Raja executed on 8th January, 1830, directed that the building was to be used ” as and for a place of public meeting of all sorts of descriptions of people, without distinction “, for the worship of the one Great God, but that no image should be admitted or rituals permitted therein.
This arrangement for the non-sectarian worship of the one True God is looked upon nowadays as the foundation of the Brahma Samaj. It must be remembered, however, that Rammohan Roy never regarded himself as anything, but a Hindu, and stoutly denied, up to the last day of his life, the allegation that he was founding a different sect. The detailed programme of his weekly service in what was then called Brahma Sabha (also Brahma Samaj) included the recitation of the Vedas by orthodox Brahmanas and no non-Brahmana was allowed in the room. The Raja himself wore the sacred thread of the Brahmanas up to his death.
The departure of Raja Rammohan Roy for England and his subsequent death there led to a steady decline of his organisation, till new life was infused into it by Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath), who established a cultural organisation called the Tattvabodhini Sabha in 1839 and formally joined the new movement in 1843. He framed a covenant and introduced a formal ceremony of initiation, thus converting the somewhat loose organisation into a spiritual fraternity. Devendranath began to propagate the new doctrine through his journal, Tattvabodhini Patrika, and also by the employment of a number of preachers. It must be noted that the mode of initiation into the new faith was based on the Mahanirvana Tantra, and the Tattvabodhini Patrika, the official organ, openly declared the Vedas as a divine revelation and the sole foundation of the religious beliefs of the new Church.
But the younger section among the followers of the new movement, led by Akshaykumar Dutta, gradually showed a critical attitude towards the infallibility of the Vedas, and Devendranath sympathised with them. He made a compilation of select passages from the Upanishadas inculcating the idea of one God, and framed a new covenant for the Church embodying the principles of natural and universal theism in the place of the old Vedantic covenant (1850).
Encouraged by this success the younger section not only advocated far-reaching social reforms, but also wanted to apply the dry test of reason even to the fundamental articles of religious belief. This party gained a notable recruit in Keshab Chandra Sen, who joined the new movement in 1857. His fervent devotion, passionate enthusiasm and wonderful eloquence popularised the movement and increased its members. At the same time he carried its rationalistic principles to a still further degree, and founded what may be called the new Brahmanism. He infused the true spirit of repentance and prayer and introduced an element of strong emotion and devotional fervour into the cause of the new Church. A new missionary zeal characterised the followers of Keshab, some of whom gave up their secular affairs and devoted their whole time to the preaching of the new gospel all over Bengal. Keshab himself visited Bombay and Madras to propogate his views.
The results of these activities were very remarkable. Before the end of 1865 there were 24 Samajas (local branches), 50 in Bengal, 2 in the N.W.P. and one each in the Punjab and Madras.
At first Devendranath warmly appreciated the services of Keshab Chandra and appointed him the minister of the Church and Secretary of the Samaj in defiance of the wishes of many older members. But the progressive ideas of Keshab and his party soon estranged them from the revered leader. They advocated and openly celebrated inter-caste marriage and widow-remarriage, and insisted that the Brahmana ministers, wearing sacred threads, should not be allowed to preach from the pulpits. Instead of allowing the Samaj to be drawn away from the old Hindu lines laid down by Raja Rammohan Roy, Devendranath, by virtue of his position as the sole trustee of the Samaj, dismissed Keshab and his followers from all offices and positions of trust and responsibility. Keshab took up the challenge and started a separate organisation which included most of the local branches. Thus by the year 1865 the Brahma Samaj was divided into two camps, the conservatives and the progressives. The former included men who believed in one God and discarded the worship of images, but did not sever all connection with Hindu society, while the latter consisted of those who regarded popular Hinduism as too narrow and chafed at the use of Sanskrit texts and the performance of social practices which symbolised that religion.
