Varnashrama Dharma
There are four classes (varna) and these are brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras. The brahmanas class is superior to the other three. Brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas are sometimes also referred to as dviya or trija. The word dvija signifies a person who is born twice and the word trija is used for a person who is born thrice. When the word dvija is used, one refers to two births that these three classes go through. The first is the act of physical birth and the second is the sacred-thread ceremony (upanayana). When the word trija is used, a third birth is included. This the act of initiation (diksha). Shudras do not have upanayana or diksha.
Dharma means that each class must perform the duties that are prescribed for it. Any deviation from this principle leads to adharma (sin). The primary duties of a brahmana are donating alms, performing yajnas, worshipping the gods and reciting the Vedas. He should also be devoted to Vishnu and should never use harsh words. And he should regard other people’s property as being as worthless as stones. The primary duties of a kshatriya are donating alms to brahmanas, reciting the Vedas and performing yajnas. A kshatriya also has to take up arms and protect the world. He is entrusted with the responsibility of punishing the evil and protecting the good. A vaishya must study the Vedas. That apart, the duties of a vaishya are animal husbandry, agriculture and trade. The shudras are permitted to donate alms, but their primary duty is to serve the other three classes. All four classes should be pleasant of speech and should try to do good to others. No individual should be overly addicted to sloth or to sensual pleasures.
In times of danger or calamity, it is permitted that a brahmana take up the occupation of a kshatriya or a vaishya. Similarly, it is permitted that a kshatriya take up the occupation of a vaishya. But under no circumstances should an individual belonging to one of the first three classes take up the occupation of a shudra. A person who does this is to be regarded as a chandala (outcast).
When a son is born, a father has to perform a ceremony named nandimukha. It is only after this that the boy can be named. A brahmana should have his upanayana ceremony when he is eight years of age, a kshatriya when he is eleven and a vaishya when he is twelve. A brahmana ties his sacred thread around his waist, a kshatriya uses the string of his bow for the same purpose, and a vaishya uses sheepskin. Brahmanas can wear the skins of black buck, kshatriyas are meant to wear the skin of a deer named ruru, and goatskin is indicated for vaishyas. If a brahmana carries a stick, it can be so long that it extends upto his hair. But a kshatriya’s stick should not extend beyond is forehead and a vaishya’s beyond his nose.
There are four ashramas (stages of life). The first is called brahmacharya (stage of celibate studenthood). During this period, an individual studies the Vedas in his guru’s house and serves his guru well. He lives only on food that he has obtained through begging. There are some objects that are forbidden for such an individual. He is not permitted to eat honey, meat, salt and betel leaf. Nor is he allowed to sleep during the day, wear garlands or slippers or use an umbrella. He has to stay away from gambling, singing and dancing. When he has studied the Vedas well, the student is ready to step into the next stage of life. But prior to that, he has to pay a fee (dakshina) to his teacher.
The second ashrama is garhasthya (householder stage). The individual has to get married before he can enter the second stage of life. The bride and the groom should not be related to one another, upto seven generations on the father’s side and upto five generations on the mother’s side. Cleaniness brings great punya to a householder. He also has to serve his guests well. A guest who goes away dissatisfied leaves his papa with the householder and takes the householder’s punya away.
The third ashrama is vanaprastha (forest-dwelling stage). A householder embarks on this when he discovers that his hair is turning grey and his skin is getting wrinkled. He leaves his wife with his grown-up sons or takes her with him and retires to the forest. He is no longer permitted to clip his nails or shave his hair and he has to sleep on the ground. For food, he is allowed fruit and roots. Under no circumstances should he eat at night. His entire time is taken up with meditating on Vishnu.
The fourth and final ashrama is sannyasa (hermit stage). This should only be embarked upon when one’s mind is completely detached from the world. It is pointless to become a hermit if one is still addicted to material pursuits. A hermit should completely shave off his head. He has no friends and no enemies. Insults or praise mean nothing to him. He obtains his food by begging for alms. A hermit should not spend more than one night at a stretch in a village or more than three nights at a stretch in a city.
The Narada Purana next describes funeral (shraddha) ceremonies.
Tithis
Any religious rite that involves fasting should be done on one of the following tithis (lunar day) – dvitiya (second), shashthi (sixth), ashtami (eighth), ekadashi (eleventh), chaturdashi (fourteenth), amavasya (night of the new moon) and purnima (night of the full moon). Vratas are recommended in shuklapaksha, not in krishnapaksha. If there is a solar or a lunar eclipse, one should not eat until the sun or the moon has been seen again. Nor should one eat for four hours before a solar eclipse and for three hours before a lunar eclipse.
Prayashchitta
“But,” said the sages, “What happenes if one commits a sin? What form does the penance (prayashcitta) take?”
The severest sin is that of killing a brahmana. This may happen inadvertently. In such cases, the murderer must place his hand on the dead man’s forehead and beg forgiveness. He then retires to the forest. He keeps matted hair and eat only once a day, that too, only fruit and roots. He meditates only on Vishnu. The sinner also visits various famous places of pilgrimage. But he makes it a point to tell whomsover he meets that he has committed the sin of killing a brahmana. The period of penance continues for twelve years, after which the sin is pardoned.
There might occur situations where the sinner dies before the twelve years are over. If the sinner is killed by a deer or if he dies of disease, the sin is automatically forgiven. It is also pardoned if the person concerned dies while saving a cow or brahmana.
The penance for killing a kshatriya is the same as that for killing a brahmana. Alternatively, the murderer may immolate himself in a fire or kill himself by jumping off a high place.
But generally speaking, the sin of killing a kshatriya is only half as severe as that of killing a brahmana. And the sin of killing a vaishya is only one-third as severe as that of killing a brahmana.
A shudra who kills a brahmana is to be beaten to death with a club.
There are three types of wine, known as goudi, madhvi and paishti. The drinking of wine is forbidden. If one drinks wine, the prescribed penance is the drinking of clairfied butter and the urine of cows. Drinking wine, in fact, is as great a sin as the killing of a brahmana.
There are various units for measuring gold (kanchana). When sunlight filters through a window, small particles can be seen. These are known as trasarenu. Eight trasarenus make a nishka, three nishkas are one rajasarshapa, three rajasarshapas are one gosarshapa, six gosarshapas are one yava, three yavas one krishnala, five krishnalas one masha and sixteen mashas one suvarna. A person who steals gold amounting to one suvarna from a brahmana commits a sin tha tis equivalent to the killing of a brahmana. The same sort of atonement is thus indicated. In addition, the sinner has to apply clarified butter and cowdung on his body. If a kshatriya steals gold from a brahmana, he has to perform a horse sacrifice. The alternative is to donate to brahmanas three hundred cows or gold equivalent to the weight of one’s own body. But if the thief shows penitence and returnes the gold to the brahmana immediately after he has stolen it, twelve days of fasting is enough.
The penance is halved if the object that has been stolen is not gold, but is gem, land or cattle.
Naturally, the penance is less if the amount of gold that has been stolen is not a suvarna, but is less. For example, if a trasarenu of gold has been stolen, two rounds of pranayama (a breathing exercise) is sufficient atonement. If a nishka of gold has been stolen, three rounds of pranayama are needed and if a rajasarshapa of gold has been stolen, four rounds pranayama are indicated. A person who steals a gosarshapa of gold has to chant the gayatri mantra (an incantation) one thousand and eight times. If the amount of stolen gold increases to one yava, the mantra has to be chanted throughout an entire day. For stealing gold amounting to one krishnala, a special vrata named santapana has to be observed. What about situations where one masha of gold has been stolen? Then the sinner has to eat for three months foodgrains soaked in the urine of cows and worship the gods for a corresponding period. The period is increased to one year if the amount of stolen gold is more than one masha, but less than one suvama.
Separate vratas are prescribed for the stealing of silver, bronze, brass, copper and jewels. The severity of the vrata depends on the object that has been stolen and on the amount of the theft.
A person who associates with a sinner has to undergo penance. The penance is the same as would have been the case had he committed the sin himself.
There is a special vrata known as prajapatya. A person who kills a mongoose, crow, boar, rat, cat, goat, sheep, dog or a hen, has to observe half a prajapatya vrata. A person who kills a horse has to observe three such rites. Other rites are prescribed for those who kill elephants or kill cows inadvertently. If a cow is consciously killed, no penance other than death will suffice.
A person who steals wood, grass, trees, molasses, meat or skins will fast for three days. A person who kills birds, turtles or porpoises will fast for twelve days.
Yajnas and religious rites are sacred ceremonies. If the voice of a chandala is heard while such rites are going on, it is recommended that one fasts for a day and purifies oneself by partaking of clarifed butter on the second day. One thousand and eight gayatri mantras also have to be chanted.
No penance is prescribed for those who criticize the gods or the brahmanas. Such sinners are beyond redemption.
No penance is successful unless it is accompanied by faith in Vishnu. The sins are forgiven even if one prays to Vishnu inadvertently. Praying to Vishnu is far superior to visiting places of pilgrimage or performing religious rites.
