Political Organisation of the Rig-Vedic Aryans
The basis of the political and social organisation of the Rig-Vedic people was the patriarchal family. The successive higher units were styled grama, vis and jana, and in some rare passages we even hear of aggregates of janas. The precise relationship between the grama, the vis and the jana is nowhere distinctly stated. That the grama was normally a smaller unit than either the vis or the jana appears probable from the fact that the gramani, the leader of the grama (horde or village), who is usually a Vaisya, is clearly inferior to the lord of the vis (vispati) or the protector (gopa) of the jana, who is often the king himself.
It is more difficult to say in what relationship the vis stood to the jana. In some Vedic passages there is a clear contrast between the two, and Iranian analogies seem to suggest that the vis is a sub-division of a jana, if the latter may be taken as a parallel to the Iranian Zantu.
The prevailing form of government among the Rig-Vedic tribes was monarchical. But names applied in later ages to non-monarchical communities were also known. We have references to the gana with the ganapati or jyeshtha (elder) at its head. The mention of the term jyeshtha, which corresponds to jetthaka of the Pali texts, possibly points to some sort of organization parallel to that of the well-known tribal republics of early Buddhist times. The Rig-Vedic state (rashtra) seems, however, to have been normally ruled by a potentate styled rajan (king) who was ” without a rival and a destroyer of rivals.” Kingship was usually hereditary. Thus the Purus and the Tritsus, two among the most famous of the Rig-Vedic clans, had as their rulers dynasties of princes, some of whose names are recorded in the Rik-Samhita. Elective monarchies were perhaps not altogether unknown, though the Rig- Veda has no clear reference to them. In the Atharva Veda and the Great Epic, however, we have several explicit references to the election of the rajan to the kingship by the people, and in the Rig-Veda itself the need of the people’s approval, if sovereignty is to be steady and unvacillating, is emphasised in the consecration hymns. In addition to the title rajan we come across the designation samrat, which in later times undoubtedly meant a paramount ruler. In the Rig-Veda, however, there is no trace of any terrestrial kingship of the Mauryan or Gupta type though the idea of a universal monarch (visvasya bhuvanasya raja) is met with.
The rajan occupied a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. He was formally consecrated to kingship and was marked out from the commonalty by his shining robes and the splendid palace where he lived, surrounded by his officers and retainers and lauded by priests and singers.
The foremost duty of the king was the protection of the tribe and the tribal territory. He fought against external enemies. He employed spies (spasa) to watch over the conduct of the people who were apparently punished when they went wrong. He had to maintain a body of priests who performed the sacred rites and received a contribution (bali) from the people. The king was assisted by a number of functionaries of whom the most important was the Purohita or chaplain. The Purohita not only gave advice to the ruler, but used his spells and charms to secure the success of his patron’s arms and lauded his exploits when victory was won. Another important official was the Senani or the leader of the army. About the organisation of the Sena or army which he led, our information is meagre. It must have included foot soldiers, later called Patti, as well as Rathins or warriors who fought from chariots. “Prancing horses” are also alluded to in certain battle songs. But the use of the elephant in war was as yet uncommon. Warriors of noble descent wore coats of mail, metal helmets, and hand-guards. The chief offensive weapon was the bow. Two kinds of arrows were used; one was poisoned and had a head of horn; the other was copper or iron-headed (ayomukham). Spears, swords and axes are also mentioned. We have also reference to the pur charishnu or moving fort which may have been an engine for assaulting strongholds. Banners were used in war, and musical instruments are mentioned. The army may have been divided into units termed sardha, vrata and gana, but the matter is obscure. Kulapas or heads of families fought under the banner of the Vrajapati, who is sometimes identified with the Gramani. The latter functionary was probably the head of the village both for civil and military purposes. Forts or strongholds were under the Purpati. The Vedic king had a system of espionage and also employed dutas or messengers.
The rajan, though the lord of the people, did not govern without their consent. The business of the tribe was carried out in a popular assembly styled Samiti, at which princes and people were alike present. We have also references to another body, termed Sabha, which some regard as a Council of Elders. Others think it was a village assembly or the place of meeting which also served as a centre for social gatherings. Certain passages of the Rig- Veda seem to connect the Sabha with the men of wealth, opulence and goodly form, and this lends countenance to the view that in the main it functioned as a Council of Elders rather than an assembly of the whole tribe. Women at any rate were, according to a later Vedic text, excluded from the Sabha. The Sabha gave decisions regarding matters of public moment and, in later literature, figures prominently in connection with, the administration of justice.
