Social Conditions
Social conditions underwent rapid changes during the period under review. This is hinted at by those epigraphs that refer to some of the most distinguished rulers of the age as “employed in settling the system of castes and orders” and in “keeping the castes confined to their respective spheres of duty”. Attempts in this direction were not, however, always crowned with success. We find members of the priestly and artisan classes taking to the profession of arms, and members of the soldier caste figuring as merchants. Vaisyas and Sudras figure as rulers of mighty kingdoms. Marriage rules were still somewhat elastic, and intermarriages between peoples of different castes, creeds and races were not unknown. Complications were introduced by the influx of foreigners, sections of whom were admitted into the framework of caste. Some of the earlier foreign immigrants rank as degraded Kshatriyas in the legal codes. Those who came after the fall of the early Gupta empire and carved out independent or semi-independent principalities for themselves, usually found a place among the thirty-six clans of the Rajputs, who now take the place of the Kshatriya families of olden times. Among the new Rajput clans, the Huns and the Pratiharas or Parihars deserve special mention. According to the view generally held by scholars, the Pratiharas belonged to the race of the Gurjaras who came into prominence for the first time in the sixth century AD. While the ruling families of foreign immigrants and Hinduised border tribes often ranked as Rajputs, the rank and file came under less exalted social groups like the Gujars, the Dhaki Khasiyas, the Bhotiyas and others.
People belonging to the higher castes in the Madhya-desa (Mid-India) did not, according to the testimony of Fa Hien, “kill any living creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic”. Sharply distinguished from them were the Chandalas, who lived apart from others. When they entered the gate of a city or a market-place they struck a piece of wood to make themselves known so that men knew and avoided them, and did not come into contact with them. The existence of impure castes is vouched for, not only by Indian and Chinese records, but by al-Biruni. If the last-mentioned scholar is to be believed, the doctrine of impurity was extended to foreigners in the north-west towards the end of our period. The Hindus of several provinces in the interior, however, did not share the views of their brethren about whom al-Biruni wrote.
The position of women in our period presents certain interesting features. Women of the upper classes in certain areas took a prominent share in administration. The queen-consort clearly occupied an important position in the Gupta period. In succeeding ages we have clear and unequivocal testimony to the existence of queens-regnant in Kashmir, Orissa and the Andhra country. A Chinese author represents an Indian princess as administering the government in conjunction with her brother. In some of the provinces, notably in the Kanarese country, women acted as provincial governors and heads of villages. The seclusion of women was not generally observed in these regions. Some of the royal ladies in the Deccan are referred to in contemporary epigraphs as not only skilled in music and dancing but also displaying their proficiency in the arts in public. Princess Rajyasri, in Northern India, is represented as sitting behind her royal brother and listening to the exposition of the doctrine of the Great Vehicle by the Chinese Master of the law. These facts not only suggest that absolute seclusion of women was unknown in certain families, but that girls, at least of the upper classes, received a liberal education and took a keen interest in the cultural activities of the age. The practice of Svayamvara, or self-choice of husband, had also not gone out of use. There was, however, another side to the picture. Polygamy was widely prevalent, but women were not ordinarily allowed to contract a second marriage. The custom of burning widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands was coming into general use, at least among the ruling clans.
State of the Country and the General Condition of the People
We have interesting glimpses of the state of the country and the condition of the people during the Gupta chandragupta coin and the post-Gupta periods, thanks to the accounts left by a number of Chinese and Muslim observers. The information derived from this source is supplemented by the testimony of contemporary epigraphs. Referring to the “Middle Kingdom”, roughly corresponding to the upper Ganges valley, Fa Hien, the earliest of the Chinese pilgrims whose records have come down to us, and who paid a visit to this country in the days of Chandra Gupta II, observes: 
“The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households, or attend to any magistrates and their rules. The king governs without 
decapitation or other corporal punishments. People of various sects set up houses of charity where rooms, couches, beds, food and drink are supplied to travellers.” South Bihar, in particular, was noted for the wealth and prosperity of its cities and the benevolence and the righteousness of its people. The elders and the gentry of the locality established houses for dispensing charity and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the country, and all who were diseased, went to these houses and were provided with every kind of help. Doctors examined their diseases. In the city of Pataliputra there were two large and beautiful monasteries to which students and inquirers flocked from all quarters to investigate the principles of duty to one’s neighbours.
nalanalanda avalokiteshvara padmapani 4 ftMore than two centuries later, when Hiuen Tsang came to this country, vast stretches of territory, notably in the Swat valley and in Eastern India, once prosperous, now wore an appearance of desolation. Splendid edifices that had adorned them were now in ruins. But with these exceptions the country in general enjoyed the benefits of good government. nalanda votive stupa (13750 bytes)Taxes were light and the people were not subject to an arbitrary tyranny. Forced service, though not unknown, was sparingly used and labour was usually paid. Traces of slavery are, however, found up to the and of our period. The roads and river-routes were less safe than in the Gupta period. The criminal code had become more sanguinary. Liberal provision was still made for education and charitable institutions. The great educational establishments in Pataliputra were no longer in existence as the city itself was in ruins. A great seat of learning had, however, sprung up at Nalanda. “In the establishment were some thousands of brethren, all men of great ability and learning. They were looked up to as models by all India. Foreign students came to the establishment to put an end to their doubts, and then became celebrated.” Another great centre of culture was Valabhi in Western India. These two places, Nalanda and Valabhi, are compared by I-tsing to the most famous educational institutions of China. We are told that “eminent and accomplished men assembled there in crowds, discussed possible and impossible doctrines, and after having been assured of the excellence of their opinions by wise men, became far famed for their wisdom.”
Other centres of learning sprang up in subsequent ages. The names of the first two sovereigns of the Pala dynasty are associated with the famous establishments of Uddandapura (Bihar) and Vikramasila. Bhoja, the versatile ruler of Malwa, established a Sanskrit college at Dhara. During the reign of Singhana, the Yadava king of Devagiri in the Deccan, a College of astronomy was founded by a grandson of Bhaskaracharya. In the far south, Pallava kings extended their patronage to educational institutions at Kanchi and Bahur. The last-mentioned place was situated near Pondicherry and had a College where provision was made for the study of the Vedas, Vedangas, Mimamsa, Nyaya, Puranas and Dharmasastras (ninth century AD).
Hiuen Tsang has some interesting observations to make regarding the dress and manners of the people of this country. Their inner clothing and outward attire had no tailoring. As to colour, a fresh white was esteemed. The men wound a strip of cloth round the waist and up to the armpits and left the right shoulder bare. The women wore a long robe which covered both shoulders and fell down loose. The hair of the crown of the head was made into a coil, all the rest of the hair hanging down. Garlands were worn on the head and necklaces on the body. In the far north of India, where the climate was cold, closely-fitting jackets were worn, somewhat like those of the Tartars.
Regarding the character of the people, the pilgrim observes that they were of hasty and irresolute temperament but of pure moral principles. They would not take anything wrongfully, and they yielded more than fairness required. They did not practise deceit, and they kept their sworn obligations.
The country was famous for its vegetable and mineral wealth. Onions and garlic were little used, and people who ate them were ostracised. Milk, ghee, granulated sugar, sugar candy, cakes and parched grain with mustard seed oil were the common food. Fish, mutton and venison were occasional dainties. The flesh of oxen and some other animals was forbidden. Household utensils were mostly earthenware, few being of brass. The use of copper spoons by the sick is also mentioned. Gold and silver were abundant and were largely used for purposes of coinage. Besides gold and silver coins, cowries and small pearls were also used as media of exchange. Precious substances of various kinds from the sea-ports were bartered for merchandise.
Certain South Indian records throw light on the standard of living of the common people in the days of Chola supremacy. It has been inferred that the average income of a family per month was about rupees sixteen for a member of the upper classes and rupees eight for a member of the lower orders.
